Linking Behaviour and Perception to Evaluate Meaningful Human Control over Partially Automated Driving

2026-05-01

AI Summary

This study addresses the tension in partial automation between diminishing driver legal responsibility and weakened actual control, which undermines both intervention capability and perceived control. Through a driving simulator experiment integrating behavioral metrics—such as reaction time and steering wheel torque—with subjective perception data, it provides the first empirical validation of the linkage between behavior and perception within the Meaningful Human Control (MHC) framework. Findings reveal that torque conflicts significantly reduce drivers’ perceived understanding of the automated system, whereas faster reaction times enhance their sense of control. Key design factors for improving MHC experience include subtle haptic guidance, alignment of system intent with driver expectations, transparent communication, and context-sensitive authority allocation. Combining telemetry analysis, survey instruments, and mixed statistical methods, this work offers theoretical and practical foundations for designing effective shared and handover control mechanisms.

Abstract

Partial driving automation creates a tension: drivers remain legally responsible for vehicle behaviour, yet their active control is significantly reduced. This reduction undermines the engagement and sense of agency needed to intervene safely. Meaningful human control (MHC) has been proposed as a normative framework to address this tension. However, empirical methods for evaluating whether existing systems actually provide MHC remain underdeveloped. In this study, we investigated the extent to which drivers experience MHC when interacting with partially automated driving systems. Twenty-four drivers completed a simulator study involving silent automation failures under two modes - haptic shared control (HSC) and traded control (TC). We derived behavioural metrics from telemetry data, subjective perception scores from post-trial surveys and used them to test hypothesised relations between them derived from the properties of systems under MHC. The confirmatory analysis showed a significant negative correlation between the perception of the automated vehicle (AV) understanding the driver and conflict in steering torques. An exploratory analysis also revealed a surprising positive correlation between reaction times and the perception of sufficient control. Qualitative feedback from open-ended post-experiment questionnaires revealed that mismatches in intentions between the driver and automation, lack of safety, and resistance to driver inputs contribute to the reduction of perceived MHC, while subtle haptic guidance aligned with driver intent had a positive effect. These findings suggest that future designs should prioritise effortless driver interventions, transparent communication of automation intent, and context-sensitive authority allocation to strengthen meaningful human control in partially automated driving.

Problem

• meaningful human control
• partially automated driving
• human-automation interaction
• driver agency
• automation transparency

Innovation

• Meaningful Human Control
• partially automated driving
• haptic shared control
• human-automation interaction
• driver perception